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The game allows us to drive massive 18 wheelers across North America. We are freighting various goods and we have to make sure that cargo will reach its destination point on time. This study was cross-sectional so temporality could not be inferred. Those who said they used cocaine, but did not use crack, were thus assumed to have used powder cocaine.

NSDUH excludes homeless individuals not in shelters, active military personnel, and residents of institutional group quarters, including hospitals and jails. Since this is a national representative sample, we should keep in mind that rates of use may be different e. We could not include poverty index because it is based on income and including it in models led to multicollinearity.

Results were similar when we included poverty instead of income in models, but models including income had better fit. Finally, recent use was relatively rare so results should be viewed with some caution, but we were still able to model precise estimates. In light of the current sentencing disparity, our results suggest adults of lower SES may be at a greater risk for being imprisoned compared to their more advantaged counterparts, as they are more likely to use crack rather than powder cocaine.

Our finding that racial minority adults are at low risk for crack use is somewhat inconsistent with the literature suggesting that young African American males are more likely to use crack Beaver, ; Smart, ; Sterk et al. However, the reader must keep in mind that while unadjusted rates tend to be presented in the policy literature, our multivariable models reduced confounding by SES variables such as income and educational attainment.

We did find that blacks were at higher risk for crack use until controlling for other socioeconomic factors and that blacks tend to use at higher frequencies. Almost a quarter of black adults live in poverty, nearly twice the national average SAMHSA, ; therefore, results suggest race may actually be a confounder for crack use among individuals of lower SES, and that crack use may be more prevalent in resource-poor neighborhoods, many of which are predominantly African American.

The arguably harsh and extreme sentences for crack offenses add to concerns about overcrowding in the US system. Overcrowding negatively affects prison employees as well as inmates and their families, with 14, children enrolled in foster care having at least one incarcerated parent US GAO, Since black individuals in the US are so much more likely to live in in poverty, disproportionate numbers have been incarcerated for crack offenses.

This finding is deeply relevant now as the Smarter Sentencing Act is under review. These findings could have profound implications for the incarceration of those already disadvantaged in society. This project was not funded. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form.

Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Drug Alcohol Depend. Author manuscript; available in PMC Apr 1. Joseph J. Palamar , 1, 2, 3 Shelby Davies , 4 Danielle C.

Ompad , 2, 3, 5 Charles M. Cleland , 2, 6 and Michael Weitzman 4. Danielle C. Charles M. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Address correspondence to: Joseph J. Palamar, Department of Population Health, E. Copyright notice. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Drug Alcohol Depend. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article.

Abstract Background In light of the current sentencing disparity between crack and powder cocaine possession in the United States, we examined socioeconomic correlates of use of each, and relations between use and arrest, to determine who may be at highest risk for arrest and imprisonment.

Results Crack users were at higher risk than powder cocaine users for reporting a lifetime arrest or multiple recent arrests. Conclusions Crack users are at higher risk of arrest and tend to be of lower socioeconomic status compared to powder cocaine users. Keywords: cocaine, crack, arrest, socioeconomic status, disparities.

Demographic and Socioeconomic Variables We examined subject sex, race i. Arrest Subjects were asked if they had ever been arrested and booked for breaking the law not counting minor traffic violations. Cocaine Use Subjects were asked if they had ever used any form of cocaine. Analyses We first computed binary logistic regression models to examine potential unconditional and conditional associations between cocaine use and lifetime arrests.

Open in a separate window. Limitations This study was cross-sectional so temporality could not be inferred. Conclusions In light of the current sentencing disparity, our results suggest adults of lower SES may be at a greater risk for being imprisoned compared to their more advantaged counterparts, as they are more likely to use crack rather than powder cocaine.

Acknowledgments Role of funding source This project was not funded. Footnotes Contributors All authors are responsible for this reported research. Palamar conceptualized and designed the study, conducted the statistical analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript.

Davies, D. Ompad, and M. Weitzman helped draft the manuscript, helped interpret results, critically reviewed the manuscript, and reviewed and revised the manuscript. Cleland advised J. Palamar regarding statistical analyses, critically reviewed methods and results, and reviewed and revised the manuscript.

All authors edited and approved the final manuscript as submitted. References American Civil Liberties Union. The War on Marijuana in Black and White. New York, NY: Getting a fix on cocaine sentencing policy: reforming the sentencing scheme of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of Fordham Law Rev.

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Law Contemp Prob. Stata Statistical Software: Release Neighbourhood structural characteristics and crack cocaine use: exploring the impact of perceived neighbourhood disorder on use among African Americans. Int J Drug Policy. Rockville, MD: b. United States Government Accountability Office. United States Sentencing Commission. Washington, DC: Washington, DC: b.

Available at: www. Is crack cocaine use associated with greater violence than powdered cocaine use? Results from a national sample. Crack, policy, and advocacy: a case analysis illustrating the need to monitor emergent public health-related policy and engage in persistent evidence-based advocacy.

J Equity Health. Chronic cocaine abuse: evidence for adverse effects on health and functioning. Psychiatr Ann. Neighborhood socioeconomic status, personal network attributes, and use of heroin and cocaine.

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